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VM370

VM370

VM is an early and influential virtual machine operating system from IBM, apparently the first true virtual machine system. (Some would argue it is still the only "true" virtual machine system.) It is in wide use on IBM mainframes today — and growing, largely because VM is all but mandatory to get maximum benefit from Linux on zSeries. VM traces its roots to the System/360, specifically the Model 67, and an operating system called CP-67. Like the Apollo space program of the same era, this early VM version and its hardware platform were way ahead of their time. The Model 67 began to introduce the radical concept of a self-virtualizing processor instruction set, perfected in later models. Essentially VM and the mainframe hardware cooperate so that multiple instances of any operating system, each with protected access to the full instruction set, can peacefully and concurrently coexist. This virtualization capability is so strong that VM can run as a guest inside itself — even multiple levels deep! — without much performance penalty. Businesses and governments find VM incredibly useful for software change management, testing, etc. Since VM allows mixing any arbitrary collection of operating system versions there's no need for "big bang" software migrations. If testing is not finished for one particular application, that's no problem — it can run on the older operating system alongside applications running on the new operating system. Nor is it necessary to purchase hundreds or even thousands of separate servers to offer these benefits. VM slices up a single mainframe, dynamically managing workload. For organizations with hundreds or even thousands of applications, this flexibility is essential. VM has evolved over decades to increase performance, add functionality, keep up with processor hardware improvements, and improve reliability and security by enforcing ever-stricter isolation for guest operating systems. Versions along the way included VM/370, VM/390, and today's z/VM (which runs on zSeries, System z9, and certain earlier models). Also along the way VM picked up a feature called Conversational Monitor System, or CMS for short. The combination was (and sometimes still is) referred to as VM/CMS. With CMS, VM is a full fledged operating system in its own right (and not just a hypervisor). IBM and third parties offer many applications for VM/CMS, including DB2. Perhaps the most famous was OfficeVision, although today third parties offer HTTP servers, databases, etc. Any mainframe operating system can run under VM. Nowadays the most popular is probably Linux on zSeries, and the major reason is that VM offers a level of sophisticated workload management on the mainframe that Linux alone does not yet offer. In particular, VM provides better memory (a.k.a. storage) management in a shared environment than Linux alone. VM also helps prevent a rogue Linux application from consuming "too much" CPU. It is common to run scores or even hundreds of Linux guests under z/VM — on a single mainframe server. Although Linux kernel crashes are rare, if a particular Linux guest crashes there is zero impact to any other part of the server. Other operating systems that run under VM include z/OS, z/VSE, z/TPF, MUSIC/SP, and z/VM itself — and all their predecessor versions. Recently EMC and Microsoft have recognized the value of virtual machine technologies through their acquisitions of VMware and Virtual PC, respectively. However, VM has been refined over many decades, and it is unique as a robust, reliable, high performance, high-end server technology for running enterprise-scale mixed workloads. Fully self-virtualizing processor hardware technology is essential to VM's capabilities, and that same processor technology is not found in today's PC and Macintosh CPUs.

External links

- [http://cap-lore.com/CP.html Short History of IBM's Virtual Machines]
- [http://www.multicians.org/thvv/360-67.html The IBM 360/67 and CP/CMS] Category:Operating systems Category:Virtualization software Category:Mainframe computers

Virtual machine

In general terms, a virtual machine in computer science is software that creates an environment between the computer platform and the end user in which the end user can operate software. Specifically, the term virtual machine has several distinct meanings:

Definitions

Original meaning

The original meaning of virtual machine is the creation of a number of different identical execution environments on a single computer, each of which exactly emulates the host computer. This provides each user with the illusion of having an entire computer, but one that is their "private" machine, isolated from other users, all on a single physical machine. The host software which provides this capability is often referred to as a virtual machine monitor or hypervisor.

Application virtual machine

The second, and now more common, meaning of virtual machine is a piece of computer software that isolates the application being used by the user from the computer. Because versions of the virtual machine are written for various computer platforms, any application written for the virtual machine can be operated on any of the platforms, instead of having to produce separate versions of the application for each computer and operating system. The application is run on the computer using an interpreter or Just In Time compilation

Operating system virtual machine

The term virtual machine is now also used to refer to the environment created by an emulator, where software is used to emulate an operating system for the end user, while the computer runs its own native operating system.

Parallel virtual machine

More recently, the term virtual machine is also used to refer to a Parallel Virtual Machine (PVM). In this case, the virtual machine software allows a single environment to be created spanning multiple computers, so that the end user appears to be using only one computer rather than several.

Techniques

Emulation of the underlying raw hardware

Since each user can run whatever operating system they want, this type of virtual machine allows users to do things like run two different operating systems (sometimes referred to as "guests") on their "private" virtual computers. Also, experimental new versions of operating systems can be run at the same time as older, more stable, versions, each in a separate virtual machine. The process can even be recursive; IBM debugged new versions of its virtual machine operating system, VM, in a virtual machine running under an older version of VM. One early user of this concept was the IBM VM/CMS time-sharing product, which used a relatively simple interactive computing single-user operating system, CMS, which ran on top of VM. In that way, CMS could be written simply, as if it were running alone, and the VM operating system quietly provided multitasking and resource management services behind the scenes. Not all VM users had to run CMS, though; some preferred to run some form of OS/360 (or eventually MVS) in one or more virtual machines, to provide traditional batch processing services to those users who wanted that. VM is still used today on IBM mainframes, and in some which are used as Web servers, the operating system run in each of many virtual machines is Linux. The VMware, twoOStwo and SVISTA packages do the same thing on modern PCs, trapping all hardware accesses and simulating all of a motherboard except for the processor. On the other hand, plex86 can run only Linux under Linux using a specific patched kernel. It does not emulate a processor, but uses bochs for emulation of motherboard devices. The x86 processor architecture as used in modern PCs does not actually meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements. Notably, there is no execution mode where all privileged machine instructions always trap, which would allow per-instruction virtualization. As a result, VMware and similar virtualization software for the x86 must dynamically recompile privileged mode code. This technique incurs some performance overhead as compared to a VM running on a natively virtualizable architecture such as the IBM System/370 or Motorola MC68020. Intel and AMD have each announced plans to add x86 virtualization capabilities to future x86 processors (see Vanderpool).

Emulation of a non-native system

Some of this class of virtual machines are emulators; these allow software written for one machine to run on another. Emulation for computer systems can include emulation for both different machine architectures, and operating systems. Others produce behaviors and capabilities of a machine that doesn't necessarily exist as an actual piece of hardware but may only be a detailed specification. For example, the p-Code machine specification (one of the first, used for support of Pascal) was a description of a specific set of capabilities and behaviors that programmers could use to write programs that would run on any computer running virtual machine software that correctly implemented the specification. More modern examples include the specification of the Java virtual machine and the Common Language Infrastructure virtual machine at the heart of the Microsoft .NET initiative. These allow diverse computers all to run software written to that specification; the virtual machine software itself must be written separately for each type of computer on which it runs.

List of virtual machine software

- Application virtualization
- Lua
- Common Language Runtime - C#, Visual Basic .NET, J#, Managed C++
- Forth virtual machine - Forth
- Glulx - Glulx, Z-code
- Java virtual machine - Java
- Low Level Virtual Machine (LLVM) - currently C, C++, Stacker
- Macromedia Flash Player - SWF
- MMIX - MMIXAL
- Neko virtual machine - currently Neko
- O-code machine - BCPL
- P-Code_machine - Pascal
- Parrot - Perl 6
- Perl virtual machine - Perl
- Portable.NET - C#, Visual Basic .NET, J#, Managed C++
- ScummVM - Scumm
- SECD machine - ISWIM, Lispkit_Lisp
- Smalltalk virtual machine - Smalltalk
- Sqlite virtual machine - Sqlite opcodes
- Squeak virtual machine - Squeak
- TrueType virtual machine - TrueType
- Warren Abstract Machine - Prolog
- Z-machine - Z-Code
- Operating system virtualization
- Bochs, portable open source x86 and AMD64 PCs emulator
- FAUmachine
- Microsoft Virtual PC
- Microsoft Virtual Server
- [http://opensource.eu.com/colinux OPEN COLINUX - Linux inside Windows]
- QEMU
- TRANGO Real-time Embedded Hypervisor
- SVISTA
- twoOStwo
- User-mode Linux
- Virtuozzo
- VMWare
- Xen

External links

- [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cs?q=virtual+and+machine Citations from CiteSeer]
- [http://cliki.tunes.org/VM Tunes project wiki page on virtual machines]
- [http://www.trango-systems.com TRANGO real-time embedded hypervisor]
- [http://acmqueue.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=168 The Reincarnation of Virtual Machines, Article on ACM Queue by Mendel Rosenblum, Co-Founder, VMware]
- [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/xeno/xen Xen]
- [http://www.opensource.eu.com/colinux/ OPEN COLINUX] Category:Computing Category:Virtualization software Category:Operating system technology ja:仮想機械

Operating system

In computing, an operating system (OS) is the system software responsible for the direct control and management of hardware and basic system operations. Additionally, it provides a foundation upon which to run application software such as word processing programs, web browsers and others. Network operating system and firmware are other types of operating systems.

Introduction

Early computers lacked operating systems. A human operator would manually load and run programs. When programs were developed to load and run other programs, it was natural to draw their name from the human job they replaced. Most current usage of the term "operating system" today, by both popular and professional sources, refers to all the software that is required in order for the user to manage the system and to run third-party application software for that system. That is, the common understanding includes not only the low-level "kernel" that interacts directly with the hardware, but also libraries required by applications as well as basic programs to manipulate files and configure the system. The exact delineation between the operating system and application software is not precise, however, and is occasionally subject to controversy. For example, one of the key questions in the United States v. Microsoft antitrust trial was whether Microsoft's Internet Explorer web browser was part of its Windows operating system or if it was a separable piece of application software. As another example, the GNU/Linux naming controversy is, in part, due to disagreement about the relationship between the Linux kernel and the Linux operating system. The lowest level of any operating system is its kernel, the first layer of software loaded into computer memory when it starts up. As the first software layer, all other software that gets loaded after it depends on this software to provide them with various common core services. These common core services include, but are not limited to: disk access, memory management, task scheduling, and access to other hardware devices. Like the term "operating system" itself, the question of what exactly should form the "kernel" is subject to some controversy—with various camps advocating "microkernels", "monolithic kernels", and so on—with debates over whether things like file systems should be included in the kernel.

System Calls

System calls are operations/services that are requested by applications from the operating system. As noted on the System Call page, "System calls often use a special machine code instruction which causes the processor to change mode (e.g. to "supervisor mode" or "protected mode")."

Common core services

As operating systems evolve, ever more services are expected to be common core. Since the 1990s, OS's have often been required to provide network and Internet connectivity. They may be required to protect the computer's other software from damage by malicious programs, such as viruses. The list of common core services is ever expanding. Programs communicate with each other through application programming interfaces, similar to how humans interact with programs through user interfaces. This is especially true between application programs and the OS. The OS's common core services are accessed by application programs through the OS's APIs. Thus an OS enables the communication between hardware and software. CPU scheduling is also a main function of the operating system. See also: POSIX

Today's operating systems

Firstly, there is a distinction between console OS's, using only the keyboard for input, such as DOS, and the modern visual OS's, focusing on the mouse and using a GUI (sometimes implemented as a shell around the former). Secondly, which OS can be used often depends on the hardware architecture, most specifically the CPU that is used, with only Linux and BSD running on almost any architecture. In the past there have been many types of OS's, but starting in the 1990's the choice for personal computers has come to be largely restricted to the Microsoft Windows family and the Unix-like family, of which Linux is becoming the major representative. Mainframe computers and embedded systems use a variety of different operating systems, many with no direct connection to Windows or Unix, but mostly closer to Unix than Windows.
- Personal computers
- IBM PC compatible - smaller Unix-variants, like Linux and BSD, and Microsoft Windows
- Apple Macintosh - Mac OS X, Linux and BSD
- Mainframes - Unix variants, Microsoft Windows and a score of other OS's, mostly related to Unix
- Embedded systems - a variety of dedicated OS's, and limited versions of Linux or other OS's

Unix-like systems

Embedded system.]] The Unix-like family is a diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-categories including System V, BSD, and Linux. The name "Unix" is a trademark of The Open Group which licenses it for use to any operating system that has been shown to conform to the definitions that they have cooperatively developed. The name is commonly used to refer to the large set of operating systems which resemble the original Unix. Unix systems run on a wide variety of machine architectures. They are used heavily as server systems in business, as well as workstations in academic and engineering environments. Free software Unix variants, such as Linux and BSD, are increasingly popular. They have made inroads on the desktop market as well, particularly with "user-friendly" Linux distributions such as Ubuntu Linux. Some proprietary Unix variants like HP's HP-UX and IBM's AIX are designed to run only on that vendor's proprietary hardware. Others, such as Solaris, can run on both proprietary hardware and on commodity x86 PCs. Apple's Mac OS X, a BSD variant derived from NeXTSTEP and FreeBSD, has replaced Apple's earlier (non-Unix) Mac OS in a small but dedicated market, in the process becoming the most popular proprietary Unix system. Over the past several years, free Unix systems have supplanted proprietary ones in many markets. For instance, scientific modeling and computer animation were once the province of SGI's IRIX. Today, they are dominated by Linux-based clusters.

Microsoft Windows

IRIX The Microsoft Windows family of operating systems originated as a graphical layer on top of the older MS-DOS environment for the IBM PC. Modern versions are based on the newer Windows NT core that first took shape in OS/2. Windows runs on 32- and 64-bit Intel and AMD computers, although earlier versions also ran on the DEC Alpha, MIPS and PowerPC architectures (and there was work in progress to make it work also on the SPARC architecture). Today, Windows is a popular desktop operating system, enjoying a near-monopoly of around 90% of the worldwide desktop market share. It is also widely used on low-end and mid-range servers, supporting applications such as web servers and database servers. In recent years, Microsoft has spent significant marketing and R&D money to demonstrate that Windows is capable of running any enterprise application (see the TPC article).

Other operating systems

Mainframe operating systems, such as IBM's z/OS, and embedded operating systems such as QNX, eCos, and PalmOS, are usually unrelated to Unix and Windows, except Windows CE, Windows NT Embedded 4.0 and Windows XP Embedded which are related to Windows and several
- BSDs and Linux distributions tailored for the requirements of an embedded system. Older operating systems which are still used in niche markets include the Windows-like OS/2 from IBM; VMS from Hewlett-Packard (formerly DEC); Mac OS, the non-Unix precursor to Apple's Mac OS X; RISC OS, which is specifically designed to run on ARM processor architectures; and AmigaOS, the first graphical user interface (GUI) based operating system with advanced multimedia capabilities available to the general public. Research and development of new kinds of operating systems is an active subfield of computer science. Microsoft Singularity is a research project to develop an operating system with better memory protection.

Examples of operating systems

- Mac OS
- Microsoft Windows
- Unix (including BSD and its derivatives, and "unix-like" OSes such as Linux and GNU)
- yellowTAB Zeta, based on BeOS
- DOS (and its fore-runner CP/M) For more examples, see the list of operating systems.

Classifications and terminology

: An operating system is conceptually broken into three sets of components: a user interface (which may consist of a GUI and/or a command line interpreter or "shell"), low-level system utilities, and a kernel--which is the heart of the operating system. As the name implies, the shell is an outer wrapper to the kernel, which in turn talks directly to the hardware. Hardware <-> Kernel <-> Shell <-> Applications | | +----------+ 1 2 3 In some operating systems the shell and the kernel are completely separate entities, allowing you to run varying combinations of shell and kernel (e.g. UNIX), in others their separation is only conceptual. Kernel design ideologies include those of the monolithic kernel, microkernel, hybrid kernel(modified micro kernel) and exokernel. Many of the major commercial systems such as UNIX, Windows (dos based), and Linux use a monolithic approach, some systems use a microkernel (such as in AmigaOS, QNX, and BeOS) and others like Apple's Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows NT line use the hybrid approach. The microkernel approach is also very popular among research operating systems. Both approaches have produced successful systems and have their advantages. Many embedded systems use ad hoc exokernels.

International Business Machines

:Big Blue redirects here. For the movie, see The Big Blue. International Business Machines Corporation (IBM, or colloquially, Big Blue) (incorporated June 15, 1911, in operation since 1888) is headquartered in Armonk, NY, USA. The company manufactures and sells computer hardware, software, and services. With over 330,000 employees worldwide and revenues of $96 billion (figures from 2004), IBM is the largest information technology company in the world, and one of the few with a continuous history dating back to the 19th century. It has engineers and consultants in over 170 countries and development laboratories located all over the world, in all segments of computer science and information technology; some of them are pioneers in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. In recent years, services and consulting revenues have been larger than those from manufacturing. Samuel J. Palmisano was elected CEO on January 29, 2002 after having led IBM's Global Services, and helping it to become a business with a $100 billion in backlog in 2004 [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/sjp/bio.shtml]. In 2002 the company strengthened its business advisory capabilities by acquiring the consulting arm of professional services firm PricewaterhouseCoopers. The consulting arm was previously known as Monday. The company is increasingly focused on business solution driven consulting, services and software, with emphasis also on high value chips and hardware technologies; as of 2005 it employs about 195,000 technical professionals. That total includes about 350 Distinguished Engineers and 60 IBM Fellows, its most senior engineers. IBM Research has eight laboratories, all located in the Northern Hemisphere, with five of those locations outside of the United States. IBM employees have won five Nobel Prizes. In the USA, they have earned four Turing Awards, five National Medals of Technology, and five National Medals of Science, and outside the USA, many equivalents.

Current business activities

In 2002, IBM announced the beginning of a $10 billion program to research and implement the infrastructure technology necessary to be able to provide supercomputer-level resources "on demand" to all businesses as a metered utility. This program will be implemented over the coming years. In recent years IBM has steadily increased its patent portfolio, which is valuable for cross-licensing with other companies. In every year from 1993 until 2004, IBM has been granted significantly more U.S. patents than any other company. That twelve-year period has resulted in over 29,000 patents for which IBM is the primary assignee. [http://www.research.ibm.com/resources/news/20000111_patents99.shtml] Protection of the company's intellectual property has grown into a business in its own right, generating over $10 billion dollars [http://www.industryweek.com/CurrentArticles/asp/articles.asp?ArticleID=1400] to the bottom line for the company during this period. [http://www.forbes.com/2003/08/07/cx_ld_0807ibm_print.html], [http://www.inc.com/articles/legal/ip/patents/23293.html] A 2003 Forbes article quotes the head of IBM Research, who suggested a $1 billion in profit just for the research staff; however, they probably generate the bulk of new inventions in the company. In 2005, IBM sold its PC division to China-based Lenovo. As part of the agreement, Lenovo moved its headquarters to New York State. IBM owns a significant stake (about 19%) in Lenovo. Starting from the date of the acquisition, Lenovo is permitted five years' use of the IBM and "Think" trademarks.

Culture

IBM has often been described as having a sales-centric or a sales-oriented business culture. Traditionally, many of its executives and general managers would be chosen from its sales force. In addition, middle and top management would often be enlisted to give direct support to salesmen in the process of making sales to important customers. For most of the 20th century, a blue suit, white shirt and dark tie was the public uniform of IBM employees. But by the 1990s, IBM relaxed these codes; the dress and behavior of its employees does not differ appreciably from that of their counterparts in large technology companies. In 2003, IBM embarked on an ambitious project to rewrite company values using its "Jam" technology -- Intranet-based online discussions on key business issues for a limited time, involving more than 50,000 employees over 3 days in this case. Jam technology includes sophisticated text analysis software (eClassifier) to mine online comments for themes, and Jams have now been used six times internally at IBM. As a result of the 2003 Jam, the company values were updated to reflect three modern business, marketplace and employee views: "Dedication to every client's success", "Innovation that matters - for our company and for the world", "Trust and personal responsibility in all relationships". In 2004, another Jam was conducted in which more than 52,000 employees exchanged best practices for 72 hours. This event was focused on finding actionable ideas to support implementation of the values identified previously. A new post-Jam Ratings event was developed to allow IBMers to select key ideas that support the values. (For further information, see Harvard Business Review, December 2004, interview with IBM Chairman Sam Palmisano.) IBM's culture has been recently influenced by the open source movement. The company invests billions of dollars in services and software based on Linux. This includes over 300 Linux kernel developers. IBM's open source involvement has not been trouble-free, however; see SCO v. IBM.

Diversity and workforce issues

IBM's efforts to promote workforce diversity and equal opportunity date back at least to World War I, when the company hired disabled veterans. More recently, IBM received a 100% rating on the Corporate Equality Index released by the Human Rights Campaign starting in 2003, the second year of the report. IBM is the only technology company ranked in [http://www.workingwoman.com/top10.html Working Mother Magazine's Top 10] for 2004. The company has traditionally resisted labor union organizing, although unions represent some IBM workers outside the United States. [http://www.allianceibm.org Alliance@IBM], part of the Communications Workers of America, is trying to organize IBM in the U.S. In the 1990s, two major pension program changes, including a conversion to a cash balance plan, resulted in an employee class action lawsuit alleging age discrimination. IBM employees won the lawsuit and arrived at a partial settlement, although appeals are still underway. Historically IBM has had a good reputation of long term staff retention with few large scale layoffs. In more recent years there have been a number of broad sweeping cuts to the workforce as IBM attempts to adapt to changing market conditions and a declining profit base. After posting weaker than expected revenues in the first quarter of 2005, IBM eliminated 14,500 positions from its workforce, predominantly in Europe. There has also been a steadily increasing movement of labour to cheap offshore countries such as India. On October 10, 2005, IBM became the first major company in the world to formally commit to not using genetic information in its employment decisions. This came just a few months after IBM announced its support of the National Geographic's Genographic Project.

History

Early years

Genographic Project IBM's history dates back decades before the development of electronic computers – before that it developed punched card data processing equipment. It originated as the Computing Tabulating Recording (CTR) Corporation, which was incorporated on June 15, 1911 in Binghamton, New York. This company was a merger of the Tabulating Machine Corporation, the Computing Scale Corporation and the International Time Recording Company. The president of the Tabulating Machine Corporation at that time was Herman Hollerith, who had founded the company in 1896. Thomas J. Watson Sr., the founder of IBM, became General Manager of CTR in 1914 and President in 1915. In 1917, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company entered the Canadian market under the name of International Business Machines Co., Limited. On February 14, 1924, CTR changed its name to International Business Machines Corporation. The companies that merged to form CTR manufactured a wide range of products, including employee time keeping systems, weighing scales, automatic meat slicers, and most importantly for the development of the computer, punched card equipment. Over time CTR came to focus purely on the punched card business, and ceased its involvement in the other activities.

World War II

During World War II, IBM's German subsidiary Dehomag (a portmanteau formed from "Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen Gesellschaft mbH", translated as "German Hollerith Machine Company Ltd.") provided the Nazi regime with punch card machines. Dehomag was taken over by the Nazis in December 1941. In 2001 author Edwin Black published a book titled [http://www.ibmandtheholocaust.com/ IBM and the Holocaust], which alleged that Thomas J. Watson knew of the German regime's activities and was indifferent to any moral issues. The credibility of Black's book [http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/01_12/b3724036.htm has been questioned], as has its claim that the Holocaust would have been impossible without Dehomag's data processing systems. The author [http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/01_14/c3726027.htm#B3726028 has responded to these claims]. As of 2004 IBM's possible complicity in the Holocaust is the subject of [http://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/07/08/ramasastry.holocaust.ibm/ at least one unresolved lawsuit]. IBM has donated more than 10,000 pages of archived documents concerning Dehomag to Hohenheim University in Germany and New York University. The topic is explored in the 2003 documentary film The Corporation. IBM contributed to the war effort by manufacturing the Browning Automatic Rifle and the M1 Carbine.

Airforce and airline projects

In the 1950s, IBM became a chief contractor for developing computers for the United States Air Force's automated defense systems. Working on the SAGE anti-aircraft system, IBM gained access to crucial research being done at MIT, working on the first real-time, digital computer (which included many other advancements such as an integrated video display, magnetic core memory, light guns, the first effective algebraic computer language, analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion techniques, digital data transmission over telephone lines, duplexing, multiprocessing, and networks). IBM built fifty-six SAGE computers at the price of $30 million each, and at the peak of the project devoted more than 7,000 employees (20% of its then workforce) to the project. More valuable to the company in the long run than the profits, however, was the access to cutting-edge research into digital computers being done under military auspices. IBM neglected, however, to gain an even more dominant role in the nascent industry by allowing the RAND Corporation to take over the job of programming the new computers, because, according to one project participant (Robert P. Crago), "we couldn't imagine where we could absorb two thousand programmers at IBM when this job would be over someday." IBM would use its experience designing massive, integrated real-time networks with SAGE to design its SABRE airline reservation system, which met with much success.

Successes of the 1960's

IBM was the largest of the eight major computer companies (with UNIVAC, Burroughs, Scientific Data Systems, Control Data Corporation, General Electric, RCA and Honeywell) through most of the 1960s. People in this business would talk of "IBM and the seven dwarfs", given the much smaller size of the other companies or of their computer divisions. When only Burroughs, Univac, NCR and Honeywell produced mainframes, a bit later, people talked of "IBM and the B.U.N.C.H.". Most of those companies are now long gone as IBM competitors, except for Unisys, which is the result of multiple mergers that included UNIVAC and Burroughs. NCR and Honeywell dropped out of the general mainframe and mini sector and concentrated on lucrative niche markets. General Electric remains one of the world's largest companies, but no longer operates in the computer market. The IBM computer range that earned it its position in the market at that time is still growing today. It was originally known as the IBM System/360 and, in far more modern 64-bit form, is now known as the IBM zSeries (often referred to as "IBM mainframes"). IBM's success in the mid-1960s led to inquiries as to IBM antitrust violations by the U.S. Department of Justice, which filed a complaint for the case U.S. v. IBM in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, on January 17, 1969. The suit alleged that IBM violated the Section 2 of the Sherman Act by monopolizing or attempting to monopolize the general purpose electronic digital computer system market, specifically computers designed primarily for business. Litigation continued until 1983, and had a significant impact on the company's practices.

Recent history

On January 19, 1993 Cassandre announced a USD4.97 billion loss for 1992, which was at that time the largest single-year corporate loss in United States history. Since that loss, IBM has made major changes in its business activities, shifting its focus significantly away from components and hardware and towards software and services. In 2004, IBM announced the proposed sale of its PC business to Chinese computer maker Lenovo, which is partially owned by the Chinese government, for USD650 million in cash and USD600 million in Lenovo stock. The deal was approved by the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States in March 2005, and completed in May 2005. IBM will have a 19% stake in Lenovo, which will move its headquarters to New York State and appoint an IBM executive as its chief executive officer. The company will retain the right to use certain IBM brand names for an initial period of five years.

Facts and trivia

Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States
- The IBM Logo was designed by Paul Rand.
- IBM's Software Group, if it were a separate entity, would be the second largest software company in the world, behind only Microsoft in total revenue. Software Group groups its products into five brands: DB2 (information management), Rational (software development lifecycle), Lotus (collaboration), Tivoli (systems management and security) and WebSphere (application as well as data integration and middleware).
- IBM invented many of the core technologies used in all forms of computing, including the first hard disk drive and the Winchester hard disk drive, the cursor (on computer screens), Dynamic RAM (DRAM), the relational database, Thin Film recording heads, RISC architecture, and the floppy disk. While the floppy disk is rapidly falling into disuse, the infamous Control-Alt-Delete keystroke (David Bradley, 2001: "I invented it, but it was Bill [Gates] that made it famous"), also invented at IBM, is still frequently used on PCs running Windows operating systems.
- The first black employee was hired in 1899 by the Computing Scale Corporation (as it was known at the time).
- IBM began hiring women to work as professional systems service staff in 1935. Thomas J. Watson Sr. wrote: "Men and women will do the same kind of work for equal pay. They will have the same treatment, the same responsibilities and the same opportunities for advancement."
- From 1933 to 1944, IBM punch card machines were installed at various German concentration camps. It has been alleged by a journalist that IBM president Thomas J. Watson, Sr. was aware of their use. Note however that concentration camps are a perfectly legal war disposition regulated by the Geneva convention. The problem lies with extermination camps, about which there were already a lot of war rumours, but nothing that could be confirmed or inferred formally before their discovery by allies in 1945. [http://ibmandtheholocaust.com/]
- From 1942 to 1944 IBM was one of nine companies contracted by the U.S. Government to produce M1 Carbine rifles; these are now sought-after antiques.
- IBM also made clocks until they sold their time division in 1958.
- In 1944, IBM was the first corporation to support the United Negro College Fund.
- In 1953, IBM published the first U.S. corporate mandate on equal employment opportunity, stating that the company would hire people based on their ability, "regardless of race, color or creed". Sexual orientation was added to the nondiscrimination policy in 1984. Genetic makeup was added in 2005.
- IBM invented the USB flash drive in 1998 but did not patent it.
- Whilst IBM did not invent the personal computer, architectures cloned from its design for the IBM PC (which relied on third-party componentry) became the industry standard, and are now often simply called the PC. The IBM PC was introduced on August 12 1981; Microsoft and Intel became monopoly suppliers of two of the key components of PC-compatible systems. IBM agreed to sell its PC division to Lenovo in December 2004 and, when the sale is complete, will come out of the business of manufacturing / designing / selling PCs, the business which it created in 1981.
- The IBM iSeries minicomputer (in its 24-year history also variously known as i5, AS/400 and System/38) is the world's largest-selling computer family, if PC-type machines are excluded. It was the first successful 64-bit machine. It has been calculated that, if the Rochester, Minnesota facility that produces the machine were independent, it would be the third largest computer company in the world.
- In 2004, for the twelfth consecutive year, IBM was awarded the greatest number of patents by the USPTO. IBM received 3,248 patents that year. (Reference: [http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/com/speeches/05-03.htm USPTO Releases Annual List of Top 10 Organizations Receiving Most U.S. Patents])

Acquisitions

- 1889 Bundy Manufacturing Company incorporated.
- 1891 Computing Scale Company incorporated.
- 1893 Dey Patents Company (Dey Time Registers) incorporated.
- 1894 Willard & Frick Manufacturing Company (Rochester, New York) incorporated.
- 1896 Detroit Automatic Scale Company incorporated.
- 1896 Tabulating Machine Company incorporated.
- 1899 Standard Time Stamp Company acquired by Bundy Manufacturing Company.
- 1900 Willard & Frick Manufacturing Company (Rochester) acquired by International Time Recording Company.
- 1901 Chicago Time-Register Company acquire by International Time Recording Company.
- 1901 Dayton Moneyweight Scale Company acquire by Computing Scale Company.
- 1901 Detroit Automatic Scale Company acquired by Computing Scale Company.
- 1902 Bundy Manufacturing Company acquired by International Time Recording Company.
- 1907 Dey Time Registers acquired by International Time Recording Company.
- 1908 Syracuse Time Recording Company acquired by International Time Recording Company.
- 1911 Computing Scale Company acquired by Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (C-T-R).
- 1911 International Time Recording Company acquired by Computing-Time-Recording Company (C-T-R).
- 1911 Tabulating Machine Company acquired by Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (C-T-R).
- 1917 American Automatic Scale Company acquired by Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (C-T-R) as International Scale Company.
- 1917 C-T-R opens in Canada as IBM.
- 1921 Pierce Accounting Machine Company (asset purchase).
- 1921 Ticketograph Company (of Chicago).
- 1924 C-T-R renamed IBM.
- 1930 Automatic Accounting Scale Company.
- 1932 National Counting Scale Company.
- 1933 Electromatic Typewriters Inc. (See: IBM Electromatic typewriter)
- 1941 Munitions Manufacturing Corporation.
- August, 1959 Pierce Wire Recorder Corporation.
- 1984 ROLM.
- 1986 RealCom Communications Corporation.
- 1995 Lotus Development Corporation for $3.5 billion.
- 1996 Tivoli Systems for $743 million.
- 1997 Software Artistry for $200 million.
- 1997 Unison Software.
- 1998 CommQuest Technologies.
- 1999 Mylex Corporation.
- 1999 Sequent Computer Systems for $810 million.
- 2001 Informix Software (a purchase of assets rather than a true acquisition) for $1.0 billion.
- 2001 Mainspring Inc. for $80 million.
- January, 2002 Crossworlds.
- 2002 PricewaterhouseCoopers' Consulting for $3.5 billion (recalculated by IBM in August 2003 as $3.9 billion).
- October, 2003 CrossAccess.
- 2003 Rational Software Corporation for $2.1 billion.
- 2003 Presence Online, Aptrix. July.
- 2004 Maersk Data & DMData.
- March, 2004 Logicalis Australia (renamed to [http://www.cerulean.com.au Cerulean Solutions] in April 2005) and Logical CSI New Zealand.
- April, 2004 Candle Corp., Daksh eServices in India.
- July, 2004 Alphablox.
- July, 2004 Cyanea Systems.
- August, 2004 Venetica.
- October, 2004 Systemcorp.
- February 2005 Corio crio for $211 million.
- April 2005 Ascential Software for approximately $1.1 billion in cash.
- May 2005 Gluecode.
- July 2005 PureEdge.
- August, 2005 DWL.
- October, 2005 DataPower.

Spinoffs

- 1934 Dayton Scale Division is sold to the Hobart Manufacturing Company.
- 1942 Ticketograph Division is sold to the National Postal Meter Company.
- 1958 Time Equipment Division is sold to the Simplex Time Recorder Company.
- Taligent, a joint software venture with Apple Computer.
- Prodigy, formerly a joint venture with Sears.
- [http://www.attbusiness.net AT&T Business Internet], formerly IBM Global Network, formerly Advantis (joint venture with Sears).
- ARDIS mobile packet network, a joint venture with Motorola. Now [http://www.motient.com Motient].
- 1991 Lexmark (keyboards, typewriters, and printers). IBM Retained a 10% interest. Lexmark has sold its keyboard and typewriter businesses. [http://www.printers.ibm.com IBM Printing Systems] now competes with Lexmark.
- 1996 [http://www.celestica.com/ Celestica] Electronic Manufacturing Services (EMS).
- 2003 [http://www.hitachigst.com Hitachi Global Storage Technologies] now provides many of the hardware storage devices formerly provided by IBM, including IBM Harddrives & The Microdrive. IBM continues to develop [http://ibm.com/storage storage systems], including Tape Backup, Storage software, Enterprise storage, etc.
- December, 2004 Lenovo acquires 90% interest in IBM Personal Systems Group, 10,000 employees and $9 billion in revenue.

Projects

BlueEyes

BlueEyes is the name of a human recognition venture initiated by IBM to allow people to interact with computers in a more natural manner. The technology aims to enable devices to recognize and use natural input, such as facial expressions. The initial developments of this project include scroll mice and other input devices that sense the user's pulse, monitor his or her facial expressions, and the movement of his or her eyelids.

alphaWorks

Free software available at [http://alphaWorks.ibm.com/ alphaWorks] (IBM's showcase for emerging software technology): #Flexible Internet Evaluation Report Architecture: A highly flexible architecture for the design, display, and reporting of Internet surveys. #History Flow Visualization Application: A tool for visualizing dynamic, evolving documents and the interactions of multiple collaborating authors. Examples from Wikipedia. [http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/screenshots/16E98A61CB7178D488256FC70075E6CD/$FILE/historyflow01.jpg] [http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/screenshots/4985F7ED629EE82D88256FC700764E11/$FILE/historyflow03.jpg] #IBM Performance Simulator for Linux on POWER: A tool that provides users of Linux on Power a set of performance models for IBM's POWER processors. #Database File Archive And Restoration Management: An application for archiving and restoring hard disk files whose file references are stored in a database. #Policy Management for Autonomic Computing: A policy-based autonomic management infrastructure that simplifies the automation of IT and business processes. (This is an ETTK technology.) #FairUCE: A spam filter that stops spam by verifying sender identity instead of filtering content. #Unstructured Information Management Architecture (UIMA) SDK: A Java SDK that supports the implementation, composition, and deployment of applications working with unstructured information. [http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/tech/uima]

Gaming Chips

IBM has also been developing processing chips for gaming consoles. The new Xbox 360 contains IBM's new tri-core chipset, which at the request of Microsoft IBM was able to design and ramp up to production volumes in less than 24 months (albeit using contract manufacturing). Meanwhile, Sony's PlayStation 3 will feature the Cell, a new chip designed by IBM, Toshiba and Sony in a joint venture. (Toshiba plans to use it on HD TVs). It has been reported that the Nintendo Revolution will also feature an IBM chip, like the Revoloution's predecessor, Nintendo Gamecube.

Corporate governance

Current members of the board of directors of IBM are: Cathleen Black, Ken Chenault, Juergen Dormann, Michael Eskew, Shirley Ann Jackson, Charles F. Knight, Minoru Makihara, Lucio Noto, Samuel Palmisano, Joan Spero, Sidney Taurel, Charles Vest, and Lorenzo Zambrano.

References

- Gerstner, Jr., Louis V. (2002). Who Says Elephants Can't Dance? HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-715448-8.

External links

- [http://www.ibm.com/ Company home page]
- [http://www.ibm.com/ondemand IBM On Demand Business home page]
- [http://www.ibmtechnology.com/ IBM Technology]
- [http://www-1.ibm.com/servers/ IBM eServer].
- [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ History and Archives]
- [http://barry_froggatt.users.btopenworld.com/songbook.html The IBM Songbook]; [http://anthems.zdnet.co.uk/anthems/ibm.swf Ever Onward] (needs Flash)
- [http://www.research.ibm.com/ IBM Research]
- [http://www.research.ibm.com/cambridge IBM Research in Cambridge, Massachusetts]
- [http://www.research.ibm.com/history/ IBM Research specific to Wikipedia.org]
- [http://www.zurich.ibm.com IBM Research in Zurich]
- [http://www.hagley.lib.de.us/1980.htm IBM Antitrust Suit Records 1950-1982]
- [http://tuxmobil.org/ibm.html Linux on IBM laptops]
- [http://www.google.com/search?q=ibmjarg IBM Jargon Dictionary]
- [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/sjp/ Current CEO - Samuel J Palmisano]
- [http://www.almaden.ibm.com/cs/BlueEyes/index.html BlueEyes Project Description]
- [http://www.computercraft.com/docs/ibm.html IBM Compatibles]
- [http://ibm.com/developerworks/ developerWorks - IBM's resource for software developers]
- [http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/blogs/index.jspa developerWorks blogging community]
- [http://ibm.com/alphaworks alphaWorks - IBM's showcase for emerging technology]
- [http://www.power.org power.org]
- [http://www.ibmtechnology.net/ Ibm technology NET] Category:Electronics companies Category:IBM Category:Fortune 500 companies ko:아이비엠 ja:IBM th:ไอบีเอ็ม

Linux on zSeries

Linux on zSeries (or Linux on System z9) is the preferred collective term for the Linux operating system and GNU/Linux software compiled to run on IBM mainframes, especially zSeries servers. Other terms with the same meaning include Linux/390, Linux for zSeries, and z/Linux.

History

Linux on zSeries originated as two separate efforts to port Linux to IBM's largest servers. The first effort, the "[http://www.linas.org/linux/i370-bigfoot.html Bigfoot]" project, developed by Linas Vepstas in late 1998 through early 1999, was an independent distribution, and has since been abandoned. IBM published a collection of patches and additions to the Linux 2.2.13 kernel on December 18, 1999, to start today's mainline Linux on zSeries. Formal product announcements quickly followed in 2000, including the Integrated Facility for Linux (IFL) engines.

Hardware

IBM zSeries/z9 servers can run mixed workloads, including numerous other operating systems, through the use of virtualization technology. Both hardware and software co-evolved over decades to support these workloads, and the Linux OS is no exception. IFLs (Integrated Facility for Linux) are mainframe processors dedicated to running Linux. Microcode restricts IFLs from running "traditional" workloads, such as z/OS. z/OS software vendors do not typically charge for IFL capacity, and IFLs are less expensive than general purpose engines (CPs). Consequently businesses and governments can easily expand their mainframe Linux installations without affecting most of their software license charges. Although Linux can technically operate on both CPs and IFLs, IFLs simply cost less. Linux on zSeries is available in both 31-bit and 64-bit versions, with the 64-bit versions rapidly gaining popularity as zSeries and System z9 mainframes become more prevalent. (The 64-bit distributions can still run 31-bit code.) The Linux 2.6.x kernel added substantial support for mainframe hardware, although several vendor distributions backported 2.6.x patches to the Linux 2.4.x kernel. For example, Linux on zSeries supports ESCON, FICON, SCSI-attached storage devices, and zSeries cryptographic accelerators. At the start of IBM's involvement, Linux on zSeries included some OCO (object code only) modules, without source code. However, currently Linux on zSeries is completely open source under the GPL with the lone exception of an optional tape driver OCO module.

Advantages

As one of the most scalable platforms for Linux computing, zSeries/z9 has several major advantages. First, companies and governments can consolidate numerous small Linux and PC servers, retaining the benefits of centralizing, but still keeping a multitude of specialized servers thanks to the virtualization support, thereby reducing operating costs. File servers, Web servers, print servers, name/directory servers, and other "utility" servers are well-suited for consolidation. Second, Linux on zSeries can take advantage of mainframe qualities of service, especially their reliability and security features, to support continuous business operations. (For example, the zSeries/z9 servers assure that machine instructions execute precisely — 2+2 always equals 4 — using redundant processor execution steps and integrity checking. This execution integrity is automatic and transparent to Linux. Many industries, including financial services, need this unique capability for their Linux applications. Also, mainframes support "hot" processor replacement. Linux and its applications continue to run, undisturbed, while adding or replacing processors, allowing business-friendly scaling according to demand.) Third, IBM's mainframe customers benefit, like other Linux users, from the vast and growing portfolio of useful software applications, including open source innovations. z/OS still has numerous reliability and availability advantages over Linux — even mainframe Linux — so most Linux on zSeries customers run both operating systems and will likely do so for the foreseeable future. However, the majority of new, 21st century mainframe buyers run Linux on their systems, many exclusively. (It is possible to configure any new mainframe with IFLs only.) Linux on zSeries has unique advantages when Linux applications access mainframe-based data and applications in CICS, DB2, IMS, and other mainframe subsystems. Architecturally, Linux on zSeries enjoys "proximity" to these resources. Linux on zSeries can interact with these resources running on the same physical system using Hipersockets (fast, in-memory TCP/IP connections that reduce network latency and processing overhead). In fact, mainframe customers often discover that their backend mainframe-based subsystems work less hard servicing inbound requests from Linux on zSeries applications than if those applications run "offboard" (on other systems across a physical network). Proximity can improve end-user responsiveness, especially for complex applications which are data-intensive or which require multiple network hops to fulfill application requests. Proximity can also improve security (since there's no network connection to intercept) and reliability (since there's no network connection to lose).

Pricing and Costs

A Linux-capable zSeries server starts at "under $200,000" (zSeries 890 Model 110, U.S. 2004 list price, excluding disk storage). Each (additional) IFL costs $125,000 (U.S. 2004 list price) — although the $125,000 is a one-time charge. (Unlike other systems, the only charge for a mainframe upgrade is a "frame charge." Once you pay for a processor you own it through any model upgrades, even though each IFL gets faster with each upgrade. On other systems you pay for processors again with each and every model upgrade.) Thus Linux on zSeries is not appropriate for small businesses with fewer than about 30 Linux servers, although some expensive per-processor licensed software can quickly reduce that "rule of thumb." Most software vendors, including IBM, treat the highly virtualized IFLs just like non-virtualized processors on other platforms for licensing purposes. In other words, a single IFL running scores of Linux instances still counts as one "ordinary" CPU, at the same CPU price, for software licensing. Test, development, quality assurance, and redundant production server instances can all run on one IFL (or more IFLs, but only if needed for peak demand performance capacity). Thus, beyond some minimum threshold, Linux on zSeries can quickly become cost-advantageous when factoring in labor and software costs. The cost equation for Linux on zSeries is not always well understood and is controversial, and many businesses and governments have difficulty measuring, much less basing decisions on, software, labor, and other costs (such as the costs of outage and security breaches). Acquisition costs are often more visible, and small, non-scalable servers are "cheap." Nonetheless, non-acquisition costs are no less real and are usually far greater than hardware acquisition prices. Also, individual users and departments within larger businesses and governments sometimes have difficulty sharing computing infrastructure (or any other resources, for that matter), citing a loss of "control." Server consolidation, as Linux on zSeries provides, can reward cooperation with better service and lower costs, but that's not to say that cooperation is always easily accomplished within a corporate bureaucracy. Ultimately market competition will encourage businesses to share infrastructure costs, otherwise they will not be the lowest cost producers. Linux on zSeries also supports less expensive disk storage devices than z/OS because Linux does not require FICON or ESCON attachment.

Environment

zSeries/z9 servers are capable of multiple levels of virtualization (as the hypervisor itself can be virtualized), including LPARs (flexible partitions). Linux on zSeries can occupy whole partitions, even whole servers. However, most Linux on zSeries customers take advantage of z/VM. z/VM provides "virtual machines," with Linux running as a guest operating system under a hypervisor. z/VM dynamically manages processors, memory, and storage on behalf of Linux, carving up a large mainframe into hundreds or even thousands of concurrently operating Linux images. Some other servers support partitions and/or virtual machines, but the zSeries/z9 leads in its scope, scale, and flexibility for Linux computing. Since the Linux kernel tends to assume that it is the sole OS running, that it "owns" the entire system, including all its memory, z/VM helps "tame" Linux. It is likely that, over time, the Linux kernel will more closely cooperate with z/VM (and vice versa), to better manage memory use in order to further increase capacity. That improvement process has already begun, and z/VM 5.2 introduced many Linux-specific optimizations.

Appropriate Workloads

zSeries/z9 server design emphasizes "balanced" performance, which is to say that the servers have tremendous input/output and memory performance relative to other servers. The zSeries/z9 architecture also emphasizes qualities of service (reliability, availability, security, integrity, etc.) Sheer number-crunching performance is only similar to other servers. However, mainframe philosophy is to keep all the processors "well fed," meaning that mainframe processors typically run at 90% or more utilization round the clock, and they gracefully handle sustained 100% utilization, simply queuing up work in priority order. Cache and memory sizes (and performance) are huge, permitting rapid context switching and large, mixed workloads in a highly virtualized environment. Specialized offload processors for I/O, cryptography, and other purposes make sure that the main processors spend as little effort as possible except on core processing. Mainframes can scale up to huge numbers of processors in a single frame and beyond (in clusters) with near linear scalability. z/VM helps Linux achieve that feat, even up to the 54-way System z9-109 Model S54. These system attributes work well for typical business workloads, especially including transaction processing and large database management. On the other hand, mainframes (and Linux on zSeries) do not perform well, at least on a cost basis, for workloads that emphasize single task computation. Examples include weather modeling, protein folding analysis, nuclear explosion simulations, digital cinematography, and structural engineering analysis. Supercomputers, including Linux-based supercomputers, excel at these workloads.

Support

Like all other versions of Linux, Linux on zSeries is governed by the GPL free software license. Linux on zSeries source code is available from numerous groups on a free and equal basis, and architectural support is now part of the main Linux kernel effort. IBM assigns several of its programmers to the community effort, but IBM is by no means the only participant. Most Linux on zSeries customers, particularly those with business-critical production workloads, purchase a software support contract from commercial Linux vendors such as Novell SuSE or Red Hat. IBM Global Services also offers support contracts, including 24x7 coverage. Most standard Linux software applications are readily available for Linux on zSeries, including popular enterprise software packages such as WebSphere, DB2 and Oracle databases, SAP R/3, and IBM's Java Developer's Kit (JDK). Nearly every open source software package available for Linux is available for Linux on zSeries, including Apache HTTP Server, Samba software, JBoss, PostgreSQL, MySQL, PHP, Python programming language, Concurrent Versions System, GNU Compiler Collection, and Perl, among many others.

Market outlook

Linux is growing rapidly as of mid-2005, and Linux on zSeries is no exception. As businesses and governments grow their Linux-based computing infrastructures, large zSeries/z9 servers are more popular for consolidation, total cost reduction, and demanding qualities of service (QoS) needs. IBM is aggressively promoting Linux on zSeries, and the company is now well-regarded within the Linux community as a defender of open source values, particularly because of its legal battles against the SCO Group. In their 2005 "hype" report, IT industry analyst firm Gartner cited Linux on zSeries as arguably the leading driver of Linux's adoption among businesses and governments. Quite simply, the expansion of Linux to the mainframe has given Linux as a whole additional market credibility. Novell SuSE currently has the most popular Linux on zSeries distribution, although Red Hat is close behind. Debian, Gentoo, Slackware, and CentOS are other notable Linux on zSeries distributions. Linux on zSeries distributions start with the mainline "s390" architecture branch of the Linux kernel.

Developer resources

Linux software developers certified for zSeries can appeal to large enterprises and open up additional market opportunity for their products. There are few barriers to doing so as IBM offers a no-charge 30-day [http://www-1.ibm.com/servers/enable/site/testdrive/zseries/ Linux on zSeries "test drive"], allowing Linux developers of any size access to a live mainframe Linux guest running under z/VM for compiling and testing software. IBM also offers its "Chiphopper" program to help developers write and publish cross-platfrom Linux software. Siebel, for example, used the Chiphopper program to bring its Java-based CRM software to both Linux on zSeries and z/OS. There are at least two software-based mainframe emulation packages that can execute zSeries software, including Linux on zSeries. FLEX-ES from [http://www.funsoft.com Fundamental Software] is the officially sanctioned option. Hercules is also available but is not sanctioned for running licensed mainframe operating systems, such as z/OS. Linux's design makes it relatively easy to compile applications for multiple platforms. However, the developer resources can be particularly helpful for performance tuning. Performance tuning is particularly important in mainframe environments with large numbers of users.

External links

- [http://www-1.ibm.com/solutions/sap/us/en/contentnews/gcl_xmlid/35653/nav_id/news Baldor Electric Consolidates Global Implementation of SAP]
- [http://www-306.ibm.com/software/success/cssdb.nsf/CS/BEMY-5WKTVU Lawson Products: Consolidating on the Mainframe]
- [http://www.ibm.com/linux Linux Technology Center at IBM]
- [http://www.ibm.com/linux/matrix IBM Software for Linux]
- [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/03/31/deutsche_bahn_ibm_suse_server_consolidation/ Deutsche Bahn (German Rail) Replaces 300 Intel Servers with One Mainframe]
- [http://www.tectonic.co.za/viewr.php?id=580 T-Systems Embraces Linux] Category:Linux distributions Category:Operating systems

Apollo

Apollo (Greek: Απόλλων, Apóllōn; Απελλων) is a god in Greek and Roman mythology, the son of Zeus and Leto, and the twin of Artemis (goddess of the hunt), one of the most important and many-sided of the Olympian divinities. In later times he became in part confused or equated with Helios, god of the sun, and his sister similarly equated with Selene, goddess of the moon in religious contexts. But Apollo and Helios/Sol remained quite separate beings in literary/mythological texts. In Etruscan mythology, he was known as Aplu.

Worship

Apollo is considered to have dominion over plague, light, healing, colonists, medicine, archery, poetry, prophecy, dance, reason, intellectualism, Shamans, and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. Apollo had a famous oracle in Crete and other notable ones in Clarus and Branchidae.Branchidae.]] Apollo is known as the leader of the Muses ("musagetes") and director of their choir. His attributes include: swans, wolves, dolphins, bows and arrows, a laurel crown, the cithara (or lyre) and plectrum. The sacrificial tripod is another attribute, representative of his prophetic powers. The Pythian Games were held in his honor every four years at Delphi. Paeans were the name of hymns sung to Apollo. The most usual attributes of Apollo were the lyre and the bow; the tripod especially was dedicated to him as the god of prophecy. Among plants, the bay, used in expiatory sacrifices and also for making the crown of victory at the Pythian games, and the palm-tree, under which he was born in Delos, were sacred to him; among animals and birds, the wolf, the roe, the swan, the hawk, the raven, the crow, the snake, the mouse, the grasshopper and the griffin, a mixture of the eagle and the lion evidently of Eastern origin. The swan and grasshopper symbolize music and song; the hawk, raven, crow and snake have reference to his functions as the god of prophecy. The chief festivals held in honour of Apollo were the Carneia, Daphnephoria, Delia, Hyacinthia, Pyanepsia, Pythia and Thargelia. Among the Romans the worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. There is a tradition that the Delphian oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus, and in 430 a temple was dedicated to Apollo on the occasion of a pestilence, and during the Second Punic War (in 212) the Ludi Apollinares were instituted in his honour. It was in the time of Augustus, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, that his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome. After the battle of Actium, Augustus enlarged his old temple, dedicated a portion of the spoil to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple on the Palatine hill and transferred the secular games, for which Horace composed his Carmen Saeculare, to Apollo and Diana. As god of colonization, Apollo gave guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization,750-550 BC. According to Greek tradition, he helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists find the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: Hittite cuneiform texts mention a Minor Asian god called Appaliunas or Apalunas in connection with the city of Wilusa, which is now regarded as being identical with the Greek Illios by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo’s title of Lykegenes can simply be read as "born in Lycia", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a folk etymology). Apollo popularly (e.g., in literary criticism) represents harmony, order, and reason - characteristics contrasted by those of Dionysus, god of wine, who popularly represents emotion and chaos. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea he would leave the Delphi Oracle to Dionysus. Together with Athena, Apollo (under the name Phevos) was controversially designated as a mascot of the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. The worship of Apollo has revived with the rise of revivalist Hellenic polytheism, and the contemporary Pagan movement. One example of this revival is the group, [http://winterscapes.com/kyklosapollon Kyklos Apollon].

Apollo Delphinios

A recent study published in 2005 by researchers at the University of Leicester has unravelled a 2,700 year old mystery concerning The Oracle of Delphi. [http://ebulletin.le.ac.uk/news/press-releases/2000-2009/2005/09/nparticle-gsn-7wj-vdd] In ancient times, the constellation Delphinus would have been rising in the eastern sky in late December and early January, the same time that some cities were sacrificing to Apollo Delphinios. In Delphi, this sacrifice took place about a month later. The researchers have confirmed that this is because the temple of Apollo at Delphi is overlooked by huge cliffs to the east. These block out the view of the lower part of the eastern sky, thus delaying the appropriate time of sacrifice for almost a full month compared to other cities on the greek plains.

Etymology of the name

The name Apollo might have been derived from a Pre-Hellenic compound Apo-ollon, likely related to an archaic verb Apo-ell- and literally meaning "he who elbows off", that is "the Dispelling One." Indeed, he seems to have personified dispelling power, which would relate to his association with the darkness-dispelling power of the morning sun and the conceived power of reason and prophecy to dispel doubt and ignorance. In addition:
- The apparent expelling character of city walls and doorways as bulwarks against trespassers
- The people-dispelling nature of disembarkations and expatriations to colonies
- The disease-dispelling character of healing
- The predator-dispelling character of a shepherd tending his flocks
- The pest-dispelling nature of a farmer growing crops
- The power of music and the arts to dispel discord and barbary
- The highly important power of fit and skilled young men to dispel intruders and invading armies. An explanation given by Plutarch in Moralia is that Apollon signified a unity, since pollon meant "many," and the prefix a- was a negative. Thus, Apollon could be read as meaning "deprived of multitude." Apollo was consequently associated with the monad. Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric απελλα, which means assembly, so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation σηκος ("fold"), in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. Hesychius

Apollo in art

In art, Apollo is usually depicted as a handsome young man, almost always beardless, and often with a lyre or bow in hand.

Appellations

Epithets applied to Apollo include:
- Phoebus ("shining one"), for Apollo in the context of the god of light
- Smintheus ("mouse-catcher") and Parnopius ("grasshopper"), as god of the plague and defender against rats and locusts.
- Delphinios ("delphinian"), meaning "of the womb", associating Apollo with Delphoi (Delphi). An aitiology in the Homeric hymns connects the epitheton to dolphins.
- Archegetes, ("director of the foundation") for colonies.
- Musagetes ("leader of the muses").
- Pythios ("Pythian") at Delphi
- Apotropaeus ("he who averts evil")
- Nymphegetes ("nymph-leader")
- Lyceios and Lykegenes ("wolfish" or "of Lycia," where some postulate his cult originated)
- Nomios ("wandering"), as the pastoral shepherd-god
- Klarios from Doric klaros "allotment of land", for his supervision over cities and colonies.
- Kynthios is another epithet, stemming from his birth on Mt. Cynthus
- Loxias ("the obscure"), as Apollo a god of prophecy specifically.
- Argurotoxos, ("with the silver bow") for archery.
- Aphetoros, ("god of the bow") for archery.
- Alexikakos, ("restrainer of evil"), as Apollo the healer.
- Akesios or Iatros, "healer"

Birth

When Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Hera's husband, Zeus, was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on "terra-firma", or the mainland, or any island at sea. In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island, and gave birth there. The island was surrounded by swans. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo. Alternatively, Hera kidnapped Ilithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace, nine yards long, of amber. Either way, Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo. Another version states that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the 7th day (ἡβδομαγενης) of the month Thargelion according to Delian tradition or of the month Bysios according to Delphian tradition. The 7th and 20th, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.

Youth

In his youth, Apollo killed the vicious dragon Python, which lived in Delphi beside the Castalian Spring, according to some because Python had attempted to rape Leto while she was pregnant with Apollo and Artemis.This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the Oracle at Delphi to give her prophesies. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of Gaia.

Apollo and Admetus

As punishment, Apollo was banned from Olympus for nine years. During this time he served as shepherd or cowherd for King Admetus of Pherae in Thessaly. Since Admetus was good to Apollo, the god promised him that when time came for King Admetus to die, another would be allowed to take his place instead. Admetus then fell in love with Alcestis. Her father, though, King Pelias would only give permission if Admetus rode a chariot pulled by lions and boars and other wild animals. Apollo helped Admetus accomplish this, and the pair wed. When time came for Admetus to die, Alcestis agreed to die for him. Heracles intervened and both of the pair were allowed to live. When he returned after the nine years, Apollo came disguised as a dolphin and brought Cretan priests to help found his cult in Delphi. He also blessed the priestess of the Oracle at Delphi, making her one of the most famous and accurate oracles in Greece. He had other oracles, including Clarus and Branchidae.

Apollo During the Trojan War

Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the Trojan War in rage because the Greeks had kidnapped Chryseis, the daughter of Apollo's priest. He demanded her return, and the Greeks eventually complied. When Diomedes injured Aeneas during the Trojan War, Apollo rescued him. First, Aphrodite tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in Troy. Artemis healed Aeneas there. Apollo had aided Paris in the killing of Achilles. If he did not accomplish the task himself.

Niobe

A Queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, Niobe boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, with the last begging for his life, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared (Chloris, usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge. A devastated Niobe fled to Mt. Siplyon in Asia Minor and turned into stone as she wept, or committed suicide. Her tears formed the river Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.

Apollo's romantic life and children

Heterosexual relationships

Daphne

Apollo chased the nymph Daphne, daughter of Peneus, who had scorned him. His infatuation was caused by an arrow from Eros, who was jealous because Apollo had made fun of his archery skills. Eros also claimed to be irritated by Apollo's singing. Simultaneously, however, Eros had shot a hate arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prayed to Mother earth (alternatively, her father- a river god) to help her and he changed her into a Lauraceae tree, which became sacred to Apollo.

Leucothea

Apollo had an affair with a mortal princess named Leucothea, daughter of Orchamus and sister of Clytia. Leucothea loved Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day.

Marpessa

Marpessa was kidnapped by Idas but was loved by Apollo as well. Zeus made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.

Castalia

Castalia was a nymph whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dived into the spring at Delphi, at the base of

VM370

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